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Manufactured Substance In Industry. Chemistry chapter 10 form 4.Tuesday, 1 October 2013 | 0 comments
Manufactured Substance
In Industry
NAME: NURUL ZULAIKHA BINTI ROSLI
I/C: 971223-01-6192
CLASS: 4 GEMILANG
SCHOOL: SMK PERMAS JAYA
FOLIO SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY
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CONTENT
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PAGE
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Sulphuric Acid
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3
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Sulphur Dioxide
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7
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Ammonia and its Salt
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8
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Alloy
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10
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Synthetic Polymers
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12
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Glass and Ceramics
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16
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Composite Materials
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17
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Sulphuric Acid
Properties of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
- Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid (can donate 2 protons to a base)
Sulfuric
acid ionises in water in two stages:
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H2SO4(l) + H2O(l)
-----> HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
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HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l)
 SO42-(aq)
+ H3O+(aq) |
- Sulfuric acid is a strong acid (complete dissociation in water, Ka approaches infinity)
Sulfuric acid reactions:
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Ø
sulfuric acid +
metal -----> metal sulfate + hydrogen gas
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Ø
sulfuric acid +
carbonate -----> metal sulfate + carbon dioxide gas + water
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Ø
sulfuric acid +
base -----> salt + water
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Ø
sulfuric acid +
ammonia -----> ammonium sulfate
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- Sulfuric acid can take part in redox reactions.
Uses of Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
- Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries (accumulators)
- Sulfuric acid is important in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate (sulfate of ammonia), (NH4)2SO4, and superphosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, which is formed when rock phosphate is treated with sulfuric acid.
- Sulfuric acid is used to remove oxides from iron and steel before galvanising or electroplating
- Concentrated sulfuric acid (18M) is used as a dehydrating agent, that is, to remove water, since it has a tendency to form hydrates such as H2SO4.H2O, H2SO4.2H2O, etc.
Sulfuric acid is
often used to dry neutral and acidic gases such as N2, O2,
CO2 and SO2
Sulfuric acid
will "suck" water out of carbohydrates and some other organic
compounds which contain oxygen and hydrogen. For example, sulfuric acid will
"suck" water out of sucrose, C12H22O11(s),
(cane sugar) to produce a spongy mass of carbon:
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C12H22O11(s)
+ 11H2SO4 -----> 12C(s) + 11H2SO4.H2O
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·
Sulfuric acid is
used in the production of nitroglycerine, an inorganic ester & organic
nitrate, which is used as an explosive but can also be used as a vasodilator,
a substance that dilates blood vessels and can be used in the treatment of
certain types of heart disease:
Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
Most of the
sulfuric acid manufactured is produced using the Contact Process.
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Combustion
Chamber
(combustion of sulfur) |
-->
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Converter
(conversion of sulfur dioxide) |
-->
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Absorption
Tower
(sulfur trioxide absorbed into the sulfuric acid mist |
-->
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Hydration
of Oleum
to produce sulfuric acid |
The Contact
Process is a process involving the catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide,
SO2, to sulfur trioxide, SO3.
·
Solid sulfur,
S(s), is burned in air to form sulfur dioxide gas, SO2
S(s) + O2(g) -----> SO2(g)
·
The gases are
mixed with more air then cleaned by electrostatic precipitation to remove any
particulate matter
·
The mixture of
sulfur dioxide and air is heated to 450oC and subjected to a pressure
of 101.3 - 202.6 kPa (1 -2 atmospheres) in the presence of a vanadium catalyst
(vanadium (V) oxide) to produce sulfur trioxide, SO3(g), with a yield of 98%.
2SO2(g)
+ O2(g) -----> 2SO3(g)
·
Any unreacted
gases from the above reaction are recylced back into the above reaction
·
Sulphur trioxide,
SO3(g) is dissolved in 98% (18M) sulfuric acid, H2SO4,
to produce disulfuric acid or pyrosulfuric acid, also known as fuming sulfuric
acid or oleum, H2S2O7.
SO3(g) + H2SO4
------> H2S2O7
·
This is done
because when water is added directly to sulfur trioxide to produce sulfuric
acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l)
-----> H2SO4(l)
·
The reaction is
slow and tends to form a mist in which the particles refuse to coalesce.
·
Water is added to
the disulfuric acid, H2S2O7, to produce
sulfuric acid, H2SO4
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)
-----> 2H2SO4(l)
The oxidation of
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in step III above is an exothermic reaction
(energy is released), so by Le Chatelier's Principle,
higher temperatures will force the equilibrium position to shift to the left
hand side of the equation favouring the production of sulfur dioxide.
Lower temperatures would favour the production of the product sulfur trioxide and result in a higher yield. However, the rate of reaching equilibrium at the lower temperatures is extremely low. A higher temperature means equilibrium is established more rapidly but the yield of sulfur trioxide is lower.
A temperature of 450oC is a compromise whereby a faster reaction rate results in a slightly lower yield.
Similarly, at
higher pressures, the equilibrium position shifts to the side of the equation
in which there are the least numbers of gaseous molecules.
2SO2(g)
+ O2(g) -----> 2SO3
On the left hand
side of the reaction there are 3 moles of gaseous reactants, and the right hand
side there are 2 moles of gaseous products, so higher pressure favours the
right hand side, by Le Chatelier's Principle.
Higher pressure results in a higher yield of sulfur trioxide.
Higher pressure results in a higher yield of sulfur trioxide.
A vanadium
catalyst (vanadium (V) oxide) is also used in this reaction in order to speed
up the rate of the reaction.
Sulphur Dioxide
This acidity is
due to the reaction of water vapour and non-metal oxides in the atmosphere,
such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide, forming dilute acids.
- carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid:
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq)
Since carbonic
acid is a weak acid it partially dissociates:
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H+(aq)
+ HCO3-(aq)
H+(aq)
+ HCO3-(aq)- nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form a mixture of nitrous acid and nitric acid:
2NO2(g) + H2O(l)
HNO2(aq)
+ HNO3(aq)
HNO2(aq)
+ HNO3(aq)
Acid rain has a pH below 5.6 due
mainly to the reaction of water vapour with sulfur dioxide and the oxides of
nitrogen.
Acid rain is a
form of environmental pollution that damages buildings and marble statues by
reacting with the calcium carbonate to form soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate
(calcium bicarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2)
CaCO3
+ acid rain -----> Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Acid rain can
leach aluminium from the soil into ground water, lakes and rivers, poisoning
fish and plant roots.
The sulfates and
hydrogen sulfates in acid rain can can leach essential plant nutrients such as
calcium and magnesium, from the soil.
Acid rain
disrupts the process of photosynthesis resulting in damage to plant life.
At low
concentrations it retards the production of chlorophyll and at high
concentrations it forms sulfuric acid which kills the plant.
Some organisms
are sensitive to changes of acidity in water which can affect their ability to
reproduce and in some cases may kill them.
Ammonium and Its Salt
In 1909 Fritz Haber
established the conditions under which nitrogen, N2(g), and
hydrogen, H2(g), would combine using
- medium temperature (~500oC)
- very high pressure (~250 atmospheres, ~25,500kPa)
- a catalyst
(a porous iron catalyst prepared by reducing magnetite, Fe3O4).
Osmium is a much better catalyst for the reaction but is very expensive.
The Haber
synthesis was developed into an industrial process by Carl Bosch.
The reaction
between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to produce ammonia gas is an exothermic
equilibrium reaction, releasing 92.4kJ/mol of energy at 298K (25oC).
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N2(g)
nitrogen |
+
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3H2(g)
hydrogen |
heat, pressure, catalyst
 |
2NH3(g)
ammonia |
 H = -92.4 kJ mol-1 |
OR
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N2(g)
nitrogen |
+
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3H2(g)
hydrogen |
heat, pressure, catalyst
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2NH3(g)
ammonia |
+ 92.4 kJ mol-1
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As the temperature increases, the
equilibrium constant decreases as the yield of ammonia decreases.
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Uses of Ammonia
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Industry
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Use
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Fertilser
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Production of:
·
ammonium
sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
·
ammonium
phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
·
ammonium
nitrate, NH4NO3
·
urea, (NH2)2CO,also
used in the production of barbiturates (sedatives), is made by the reaction
of ammonia with carbon dioxide
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Chemicals
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Synthesis of:
·
nitric acid,
HNO3, which is used in making explosives such as TNT
(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), nitroglycerine which is also used as a vasodilator
(a substance that dilates blood vessels) and PETN (pentaerythritol nitrate).
·
sodium hydrogen
carbonate (sodium bicarbonate), NaHCO3
·
sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3
·
hydrogen
cyanide (hydrocyanic acid), HCN
·
hydrazine, N2H4
(used in rocket propulsion systems)
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Explosives
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ammonium
nitrate, NH4NO3
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Fibres and Plastics
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nylon, -[(CH2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO]-,and
other polyamides
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Refrigeration
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used for making
ice, large scale refrigeration plants, air-conditioning units in buildings
and plants
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Pharmaceuticals
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used in the
manufacture of drugs such as sulfonamide which inhibit the growth and
multiplication of bacteria that require p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for
the biosynthesis of folic acids, anti-malarials and vitamins such as the B
vitamins nicotinamide (niacinamide) and thiamine.
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Pulp and Paper
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ammonium
hydrogen sulfite, NH4HSO3, enables some hardwoods to be
used
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Mining and Metallurgy
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used in
nitriding (bright annealing) steel,
used in zinc and nickel extraction |
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Cleaning
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ammonia in
solution is used as a cleaning agent such as in 'cloudy ammonia'
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Alloy
- A metal is a lattice of positive metal 'ions' in a 'sea' of delocalised electrons.
- Metallic bonding refers to the interaction between the delocalised electrons and the metal nuclei.
- The physical properties of metals are the result of the delocalisation of the electrons involved in metallic bonding.
- The physical properties of solid metals are:
®
conduct heat
®
conduct electricity
®
generally high melting and boiling points
®
strong
®
malleable (can be hammered or pressed out of
shape without breaking)
®
ductile (able to be drawn into a wire)
®
metallic lustre
®
opaque (reflect light)
Physical Properties of Metals
ü 
Solid
and liquid metals conduct heat and electricity.
Solid
and liquid metals conduct heat and electricity.
ü The
delocalised electrons are free to move in the solid lattice. These mobile
electrons can act as charge carriers in the conduction of electricity or as
energy conductors in the conduction of heat.
ü In
general, metals have high melting and
boiling points because of the strength of the metallic bond.
o
The strength of
the metallic bond depends on the
o number of electrons in the delocalised 'sea'
of electrons.
(More delocalised electrons results in a stronger bond and a higher melting point.)
(More delocalised electrons results in a stronger bond and a higher melting point.)
o packing arrangement of the metal atoms.
(The more closely packed the atoms are the stronger the bond is and the higher the melting point.)
(The more closely packed the atoms are the stronger the bond is and the higher the melting point.)
ü
Group I metals have relatively low melting
points compared to other metals because they:
o
only have 1 electron to contribute to the
delocalised 'sea' of electrons
o
are not forming as many metallic bonds as
other metals because Group I atoms are inefficiently packed
o
have large atomic radii so the delocalised
electrons are further away from the nucleus resulting in a weaker metallic bond
Malleable
and Ductile
®
Metals are
malleable and ductile.
Metals are
malleable and ductile.
® The
delocalised electrons in the 'sea' of electrons in the metallic bond, enable
the metal atoms to roll over each other when a stress is applied.
Optical Properties
®
Metals typically have a shiny, metallic lustre.
® Photons
of light do not penetrate very far into the surface of a metal and are
typically reflected, or bounced off, the metallic surface.
Synthetics Polymers
- Polymer: large molecules made up of many monomers
- Monomer: simpler substance of which polymer is made
- Addition Polymerization: monomers' double-bonds open up to form continuous chain
- Condensation Polymerization: elimination of smaller molecule when functional groups react.
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Monomer Name
Monomer Structure |
Polymer Name
Polymer Structure |
Polymer Uses
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ethene
(ethylene)
CH2=CH2 |
polyethene
(polythene or polyethylene)
-[-CH2-CH2-]n- |
LDPE for
sandwich wrap, cling wrap
HDPE for water pipes, wire insulation |
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propene
(propylene)
CH2=CHCH3 |
polypropene
(polypropylene)
-[-CH2-CHCH3-]n- |
electrical
appliances, automotive applications, ropes, carpets, films
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chloroethane
(vinyl chloride)
CH2=CHCl |
polyvinyl
chloride (PVC)
-[-CH2-CHCl-]n- |
indoor
electrical conduit, underground water pipes
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tetrafluoroethene
(tetrafluoroethylene)
CF2=CF2 |
polytetrafluorethene
(polytetrafluoroethylene, teflon)
-[-CF2-CF2-]n- |
Insulation
for wires, motors, generators, etc.
Anti-stick applications in cookware, bearings. |
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styrene
(vinyl benzene)
CH2=CH  |
polystyrene
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heat and
electrical insulation, pipes
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acrylonitrile
(vinyl cyanide)
CH2=CH-CN |
polyacrylonitrile
-[-CH2-CHCN-]n- |
acrylic
fabrics stronger than wool
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vinyl
acetate
CH3COOCH=CH2 |
polyvinylacetate
(PVA)
-[-CH3COOCH-CH2-]n- |
adhesives,
paints
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Condensation Polymerization
· when bifunctional monomers react to form a long chain polymer molecule
- small molecules, such as water, are eliminated during the reaction
Polyesters
ü Polyesters
form when the -OH functional group of one monomer reacts with the -COOH
functional group of another monomer.
ü An ester
link (-COO-) is formed between monomers
during the reaction.
H2O is eliminated in the reaction.
H2O is eliminated in the reaction.
ü General
reaction between a dicarboxylic acid and a diol:
|
HO
| C || O |
- R -
|
OH
| C || O |
+
|
HO- R'-OH
|
→
|
OH
| C || O |
-R-
|
C || O |
-O-R'-OH
|
+
|
H2O
|
Polyamides
ü Polyamides form when when the -COOH functional group of one monomer reacts with the -NH2 functional group of another monomer.
ü An amide link or peptide bond (-CO-NH-)
forms between monomers during the reaction.
H2O is eliminated in the reaction.
ü Proteins are naturally occurring polyamides.
ü General reaction between a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine:
|
HOOC-R-COOH
+ H2N-R'-NH2 → HOOC-R-CONH-R'-NH2 + H2O
Property
Of Polymers
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Ceramics
Advanced ceramics
have the following inherent properties:
- Hard (wear resistant)
- Resistant to plastic deformation
- Resistant to high temperatures
- Good corrosion resistance
- Low thermal conductivity
- Low electrical conductivity
- Exhibit high thermal conductivity and/or high electrical conductivity.
The combination
of these properties means that ceramics can provide:
® High wear resistance with low density
® Wear resistance in corrosive environments
® Corrosion resistance at high
Advantages
compared to other materials.
Ø
They are harder
and stiffer than steel.
Ø
More heat and
corrosion resistant than metals or polymers.
Ø
Less dense than
most metals and their alloys
Ø
Raw materials are
both plentiful and inexpensive
Ø
Display a wide
range of properties.
Glass
ü The main component of glass is
silica dioxide which is obtained from sand.
ü The main characteristic of glass
are hard but brittle, chemically inert, transparent, not permeable to
liquid, does not conduct electricity and
heat insulator.
ü The most simple glass is the fused
silica glass. The glass contain silica only.
ü Most of the glasses are produced
by mixing molten with other compounds.
ü Glass can be recycled and can be
melted and sodified repeatedly.
ü There are four types glass that
are commonly used, namely fused glass, soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass and
lead crystal glass.
Also called composition materials or shortened to composites are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials.
Typical engineered composite materials include:
- Composite building materials such as cements, concrete
- Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer
- Metal Composites
- Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)